BABUR - THE FIRST MUGHAL EMPEROR [1526-30]
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526.
At the age of 14, Babur ascended the throne of the Central Asian kingdom of Farghana. His greatest ambition was to rule Samarkand. He fought many battles in the pursuit of this goal, winning and losing his kingdom many times in the process. In 1504, he ventured into what is now Afghanistan and conquered Kabul.
His position in Central Asia was precarious at best. In order to consolidate his rule, he invaded India five times, crossing the River Indus each time. The fifth expedition resulted in his encounter with Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in April 1526. Babur's army was better equipped than Lodhi's; he had guns while the sultan relied on elephants. The most successful of Babur's innovations was the introduction of gunpowder, which had never been used before in the Sub-continent. This combined with Babur's newer tactics gave him a greater advantage. Babur's strategy won the war and Ibrahim Lodhi died fighting.
Panipat was merely the beginning of the Mughal rule. Akbar laid its real foundation in 1556. At the time of the battle of Panipat, the political power in India was shared by the Afghans and the Rajputs. After Panipat, the Hindu princes united under Rana Sanga, the Raja of Mewar, resulting in a sizable force. Babur's army showed signs of panic at the size of the huge opposing army. To prevent his forces retreat, Babur tried to instill confidence in his soldiers by breaking all his drinking cups and vessels, and vowed never to drink again if he won. His soldiers took heart, and when the armies met in the battle at Kanwaha, near Agra on March 16, 1527, Babur was able to win decisively. Kanwaha confirmed and completed Babur's victory at Panipat. Babur thus became the king of Central India.
In 1528, he captured Chanderi from the Rajput chief Medini Rao, and a year later he defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodhi in the battle of Ghagra at Bihar. These conquests made Babur the "Master of Hindustan". He was not destined to enjoy the fruits of his conquests as he died shortly afterwards in Agra on December 26, 1530. He was buried at Kabul in accordance with his wish.
The Mughal age is famous for its many-faceted cultural developments. The Timurids had a great cultural tradition behind them. Their ancestral kingdom at Samarkand was the meeting ground of the cultural traditions of Central and West Asia. The Mughals brought with them Muslim cultural traditions from Turko-Iranian areas, which inspired the growth of the Indo-Muslim culture.
HUMAYUN Rule [1530-40, 1555-6]
Babur was succeeded by his eldest son Humayun. Humayun failed in asserting a strong monarchical authority. He inherited a freshly won empire with a host of troubles; the Afghan nobles, the Rajputs and worst of all, his three treacherous brothers. They caused numerous problems for him. Following his father's advice, Humayun treated his brothers kindly and appointed them to high positions. Kamran was appointed as the Governor of Kabul, Kandhar and later even Punjab. Askari was the Governor of Sambhal, and Hindal the Governor of Alwar. In return, his brothers hindered him at every step and betrayed him in his hour of need. All of them coveted the throne. This was a curse that each successful Mughal king had to deal with. Humayun almost lost the empire his father had fought so hard to bequeath him. In the first ten years of his rule, he faced so many challenges not only from his younger brothers but also from the Afghan General Sher Shah Suri who had served under Babur. Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in the battles of Chausa and Kanauj in 1540. This defeat was the first setback to the infant Mughal Empire. He lived the next 15 years of his life, from 1540 to 1555, self-exiled in Persia. Later on, with the help of the King of Persia, he captured Kabul and Kandhar. He was finally able to re-ascend the throne at Delhi and Agra after defeating Sikandar Suri. After recovering his throne, Humayun devoted himself to the affairs of the kingdom and towards improving the system of government. He laid the foundation of the Mughal style of painting. Later on, during the reign of Akbar, a fusion of Persian and Indian style of painting took place.
Unfortunately, after recovering his empire, Humayun was not destined to rule for long. In January 1556, he met his tragic end by slipping from the famous building known as Din Panah. After him his eldest son Akbar took over the rule of the empire
AKBAR Reign [1556-1605]
Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died. Thanks to his exceptionally capable guardian, Bahram Khan, he survived to demonstrate his worth. Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of conquests he managed to subdue most of India. Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them. Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration.
The reign of Akbar was a period of renaissance of Persian literature. The Ain-i-Akbari gives the names of 59 great Persian poets of Akbar's court. History was the most important branch of Persian prose literature. Abul Fazl's Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari were complementary works. Akbar and his successors, Jehangir and Shah Jehan greatly contributed to the development of Indian music. Tansen was the most accomplished musician of the age. Ain-i-Akbari gives the names of 36 first-rate musicians of Akbar's court where Hindu and Muslim style of music mingled freely.
The Mughal architectural style began as a definite movement under his rule. Akbar's most ambitious and magnificent architectural undertaking was the new capital city that he built on the ridge at Sikri near Agra. The city was named as Fatehpur to commemorate Akbar's conquest of Gujrat in 1572. The most impressive creation of this new capital is the grand Jamia Masjid. The southern entrance to the Jamia Masjid is an impressive gateway known as Buland Darwaza. Like most other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, the fabric of this impressive gateway is of red sandstone that is decorated by carvings and discreet inlaying of white marble. Of all the Mughals, Akbar's reign was the most peaceful and powerful. With his death in 1605, ended a glorious epoch in Indian history.
JEHANGIR Reign [1605-1628]
Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror of the World". He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal. Although many rebellions arose in the empire, especially in Bengal and Mewar, Jehangir was able to suppress them all. Jehangir was renowned for administering impartial justice to his people, irrespective of their religious faith. Around this time, European traders had started coming to India. The English were able to find favor with Jehangir and cultivated him through works of art, of which Jehangir was a connoisseur. The first ambassador to the Mughal court was Sir Thomas Roe. He was able to secure many trading facilities for his countrymen.
SHAH JEHAN Rule [1628-58]
jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of Shah Jehan, i.e. the Emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jehan's rule. This was due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result, during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal Empire. During the reign of Shah Jehan, Mughal architecture reached its supreme exuberance. He chose marble as the chief medium for all his architectural undertakings. Elaborate ornamentation, pietra dura, and creation of exclusive landscape settings, are some important features of the buildings of this period.
hah Jehan built marble edifices at Agra such as the Diwan-i-Aam, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Shish Mahal and the Moti Masjid, which have been described as the most elegant buildings of their class to be found anywhere. But all other architectural creations of Shah Jehan are nothing when compared to the exquisite conception of the mausoleum of his wife, Arjumand Bano Begum (Mumtaz Mehal) at Agra. The Taj Mehal is the crowning glory and culmination of Mughal architecture. Its construction commenced in 1631 and was completed sometime around 1653. Gulbadan Begum's "Humayun Namah", Jehangir's autobiography "Tuzk-i-Jehangiri", Abdul Hamid Lahori's "Padshahnama" and Inayat Khan's "Shah Jehannama" are some of the examples of Mughal literature in the latter period of Shah Jehan's reign.
AURANGZEB ALAMGIR Reign [1658-1707]
Aurangzeb ascended the throne on July 21, 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of government. This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on. Aurangzeb had three brothers. His father Shah Jehan favored Dara Shikoh to be his successor. Dara Shikoh was eclectic in his beliefs; therefore Aurangzeb challenged his father's rule. Shah Jahan fell seriously ill and all his sons proclaimed succession. Contrary to everyone's expectations, Shah Jehan recovered. On his recovery, he again backed Dara as his successor. A war of succession broke out among all the brothers. In the long run Aurangzeb was victorious. But as Shah Jehan was in absolute favor of Dara, Aurangzeb no longer trusted him, and had Shah Jehan placed under polite restraint in his own palace.
Aurangzeb, a staunch Muslim, gave many grants for the restoration of Hindu temples during his reign. He also appointed Hindus to leading and commanding positions in his government. His chief architectural achievement is the Badshahi Mosque at Lahore, the largest mosque in the world at the time it was built. In his 50 year, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his great ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under his rule that in 1687 Bijapur and Golkonda, the last of the two Shia states surrendered to the Mughal Empire. The Marhattas continued to fight against Aurangzeb for some time. The last 26 years of Aurangzeb were devoted to his relentless Deccan campaign for the purpose of which he had moved his court to Deccan. Under Aurangzeb's rule, the borders of the Mughal Empire spread out farther than ever before. But due to lack of communication and poor infrastructure it was difficult to hold the empire together. If the court was in the north, there was rebellion in the south, and vice versa. Though he ruled longer than any of his predecessors, yet he could not stop the decline of the Mughal Empire, which hastened after his demise as none of his sons was trained to rule. Finally in 1858 India came directly under the control of British government.
SHER SHAH SURI [1472-1545]
Sher Shah Suri, "The Lion King", founder of the Suri Dynasty, was born in 1472 in Punjab. His original name was Farid. He was the son of a petty Afghan Jagirdar. Ill-treated by his stepmother, he left home at an early age. He went to Jaunpur where he set himself to serious study and there he acquired good command over the Arabic and Persian languages. Because of his abilities, he was soon appointed by his father to manage the family Jagir. But again because of his stepmother, he left his father's Jagir and went to Bihar where he later joined the service of Babur.
Seeing the weaknesses in the Mughal rule and military organization, Sher Shah took advantage of the problems faced by Humayun. Eventually he managed to overthrow the Mughal rulers. His reign barely spanned five years, but is a landmark in the history of the Sub-continent. With his deep knowledge and practical experience, he made many brilliant additions and improvements to the existent system. Sher Shah was a capable military and civilian administrator. He set up reforms in various areas. Akbar later built on these reforms and extended them further. Many of these reforms pertained to the army, but the principal reforms for which he is remembered are those connected with revenue administration. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign.
Sher Shah ruled for a short period of five years in which he not only consolidated his power but also brought about important reforms. He died in 1545 from a gunpowder explosion. He was a practical and farsighted ruler who was way ahead of his contemporaries. He is remembered in history for the numerous reforms that he undertook to strengthen the government. He was in truth the greatest ruler that sat upon the throne of Delhi.
Mujaddid Alf Sani [1564-1624]
The first of the great reformers, Sheikh Ahmad Sarhindi al-Farooqi an-Naqshbandi, was born in Sarhind on June 26, 1564. He belonged to a devout Muslim family that claimed descent from Hazrat Umar Farooq (RA). His father Sheikh Abdul Ahad was a well-known sufi of his times. Sheikh Ahmad received his basic education at home. His initial instructions in the Holy Quran, Hadith and theology were rendered in Sarhind and Sialkot. Later, he devoted most of his time to the study of Hadith, Tafseer and philosophy. He worked for some time in Lahore as well. But the greater part of his life was spent in Sarhind, where he was to become the champion of Islamic values. It was not until he was 36 years old that he went to Delhi and joined the Naqshbandiya Silsilah under the discipleship of Khawaja Baqi Billah.
During this period the Muslims in India had become so deficient in the knowledge of true Islam that they had more belief in Karamat or miracles of the saints than Islamic teachings. The Ulema and theologians of the time had ceased to refer to the Quran and Hadith in their commentaries, and considered jurisprudence the only religious knowledge. Akbar, the Mughal king had started a series of experiments with Islam, propagating his own religion Din-i-Ilahi, an amalgamation of Hindu and Muslim beliefs. In these circumstances, Sheikh Ahmad set upon himself the task of purifying the Muslim society. His aim was to rid Islam of the accretions of Hindu Pantheism. He was highly critical of the philosophy of Wahdat-ul Wujud, against which he gave his philosophy of Wahdat-ush-Shuhud.
He entered into correspondence with Muslim scholars and clerics and laid stress on following the true contours of Islam. To him, mysticism without Shariah was misleading. He stressed the importance of Namaz and fasting. Through preaching, discussions and his maktubat addressed to important nobles and leaders of religious thought, he spread his message amongst the elite in particular. As he and his followers also worked in the imperial camp and army, he was soon noticed by Jehangir. Jehangir, unlike his father, was a more orthodox Muslim. But he still insisted on full prostration by all his subjects. Sheikh Ahmad refused to prostrate before him, as result of which he was imprisoned at Gwalior Fort for two years until the Emperor realized his mistake. Jehangir then not only released Sheikh Ahmad, but also recalled him to Agra. Jehangir thereafter retracted all un-Islamic laws implemented by Akbar.
Sheikh Ahmad's greatest contribution was undoubtedly the task of countering unorthodox Sufism and mystic beliefs. He organized the Naqshbandiya order to reform the society and spread the Shariah among the people. He wrote many books, including his famous works, Isbat-ul-Nabat and Risal-i-Nabuwat. His greatest work on Islamic philosophy was the Tauheed-i-Shuhudi. Sheikh Ahmad continued preaching Islam till the end of his days. He urged people to adhere to the accepted and clearly laid down path of Islam. He passed away in 1624.
NUR JEHAN [1577-1643]
Nur Jehan was the daughter of a Persian immigrant, Mirza Ghiyas Baig of Tehran. Before becoming the beloved wife of the Mughal emperor Jehangir, she was the widow of a Mughal officer, Sher Afghan Quli Khan.
Mehr-un-Nisa, entitled Nur Jehan, was born when her parents were migrating to the Sub-continent in the 16th century. She received her early education in Quran and the Persian language and had a special flare for poetry.
Her father came to the Sub-continent during the time of the Mughal emperor, Akbar, and entered into his service. He rose rapidly by sheer merit. In 1607, Nur Jehan was brought to the court as royal ward. She was beautiful and highly intelligent and attracted Jehangir's attention.
A good deal of fiction has gathered round this remarkable woman, obscuring her personality and role in the social and political life of this period. It is wrongly and widely believed that Jehangir murdered Sher Afghan, Nur Jehan's first husband, because he wanted to marry Nur Jehan. In actuality, he died in a skirmish in 1607. The conqueror of the world, Jehangir fell in love with Nur Jehan and married her in 1611. He gave her the title of Nur Mehal, "Light of the Palace" and later Nur Jehan, "Light of the World".
After marriage, Nur Jehan won Jehangir's complete confidence. She carefully attended to the affairs of the state. Her father and brother became ministers and together they dominated the courts. A number of historians believe that Nur Jehan became the real power behind the throne and practically the sovereign of the Mughal Empire. For many years she wielded the imperial powers. She even gave audiences at her palace and her name was placed on the coinage.
Nur Jehan influenced a large number of brilliant soldiers, scholars and poets from Iran, who subsequently played an important role in the administration and in the development of the cultural life of Mughal Empire.
The decision to marry her daughter from her first husband, to Shah Jehan's younger brother Shahryar, and her consequent support to his candidature to the throne caused Shah Jehan's rebellion. Emperor Jehangir was captured by rebels in 1626 while he was on his way to Kashmir. Nur Jehan intervened to get her husband released. Jehangir was rescued but died on October 28, 1627.
Nur Jehan had a magnificent tomb erected over the grave of her husband. She retired from the world and lived a quiet and lonely life for 16 years after the death of Jehangir. She died in 1643, and is buried besides Jehangir at Shahdra, Lahore.
SHAH ABDUL LATIF [1689-1752]
Shah Abdul Latif, a great scholar, saint and spiritual poet, was born in Hala Haveli near the Khatiyan village of Hyderabad District, Sindh in 1689. His ancestral roots lay in Afghanistan. It is said that the Shah's father, Syed Habib Shah, had migrated from Matyaru, his ancestral home in Afghanistan to Bhainpur in Sindh, in order to gain spiritual contact with Bilawal, a local pious man.
Abdul Latif received his early education from a Madrasa run by Akhund Noor M. Bhatti. He was proficient in the knowledge of Quran and the traditions. He always carried with him copies of the Quran, Masnavi Maulana Room, and Risalo of his great grand father Shah Abdul Karim of Burli. The poet excelled in the Sindhi language. He was also proficient in the Persian, Sanskrit, Saraiki, Urdu and Baluchi languages.
Shah was a missionary and believed in practical learning. It is through his journeys that he acquired the background for most of his poems. He denounced extravagance, injustice and exploitation in all forms and at all levels, and praised simplicity and hospitality. His spiritual and mystic poetry carries a message of love and universality of the human race.
In 1713, the Sufi poet married Bibi Saidha Begum. It was a love marriage. His wife died at an early age, before she could have any children. Shah never married again.
In 1742, Shah Abdul Latif decided to settle in Bhit, meaning "The Sandy Mound". Having a great passion for music, one day he ordered the musicians to play music. They played continuously for three days. When they stopped playing from pure exhaustion, they found the poet dead. He died in 1752, and is buried in Bhit. A mausoleum was later constructed there.
Before his death, fearing that people might ignore his poetry, he destroyed all his writings by throwing them in the Kiran Lake. But at the request of one of his disciples, the sufi poet asked his servant, Mai Naimat, who had memorized most of his verses, to rewrite them. The message was duly recorded and compiled. A copy of the compilation known as "Ganj" was retained at the mausoleum. The original copy disappeared sometime in 1854. It was in 1866, 114 years after the poet's death, that Ernest Trumpp, a German scholar who knew Sindhi as well as many other languages, compiled "Risalo", a complete collection of Shah Abdul Latif's poetry, along with two other Sindhi scholars.
Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai is always remembered for his great poetry with love and reverence.
SHAH WALI ULLAH [1703-1762]
Shah Wali Ullah Muhaddis Dehlvi was born on February 21, 1703 at Delhi, just when the reign of Aurangzeb was nearing its end. He was named Qutb-ud-Din, but is better known by his title of Wali Ullah, given to him by virtue of his goodness and piety. His father, Shah Abdul Rahim, was a sufi and theologian of great repute. He was the founding member and teacher of the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in Delhi. Shah Abdul Rahim was associated with the completion of the famous Islamic legal text, Fatawa-i-Alamgiri.
Shah Wali Ullah received his academic and spiritual education from his father. He memorized the Holy Quran and gained knowledge of Tafseer, Hadith, spiritualism, mysticism, metaphysics, logic, and Ilm-ul-Kalam while still in his boyhood. After mastering these subjects, he turned his attention to the Sahih Bukhari and Islamic Jurisprudence. He also studied medicine and tibb. After acquiring this knowledge, he taught at his father's Madrasa for 12 years. He left for Arabia in 1730 for higher education. During his stay in Arabia, he was influenced by Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim, a renowned scholar of the time. He studied in Medina for 14 years, where he obtained his Sanad in Hadith. It is believed that while Shah Wali Ullah was in Arabia, he was blessed with a vision of the Holy Prophet (SAW), and tidings that he would be influential in organizing the reform of Muslims in India.
By the time he returned to Delhi in July 1732, the decline in Mughal fortunes had started. The social, political, economic and religious conditions of the Muslims were very poor. On his return to India, he not only identified the causes for the decline of the Muslims, but also pointed out the remedies. Shah Wali Ullah believed that the various problems Muslims faced were due to their ignorance about Islam and the Holy Quran. He, therefore, personally trained a number of students who were entrusted with the task of spreading Islam. In order to promulgate the teachings of Islam and make the Holy Quran more accessible to the people, he translated the Quran to Persian, the main and common language of the people at that time. He also tried to reduce the various differences of many a sectarian group prevailing at that time.
Shah Wali Ullah was a prolific writer and wrote extensively on Fiqh and Hadith. He eventually wrote 51 books; 23 in Arabic and 28 in Persian. Among his famous works are the Hujjat-ullah-il-Balighah and Izalat-ul-Khifa.
Shah Wali Ullah also made efforts for the political uplift of Muslims of India. He wrote to Ahmad Shah Abdali to help the Muslims of India in crushing the Marhattas, who were a constant threat to the crumbling Mughal Empire. In 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali, in response to Shah Wali Ullah's call, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Marhattas at Panipat. Shah Wali Ullah was responsible for awakening in the community the desire to regain its moral fervor and maintain its purity. He was laid to rest in 1762. His sons and followers ably continued his work and noble mission.
BAHADUR SHAH I [1643-1712]
Born in Burhanpur on October 14, 1643, Bahadur Shah I, originally named Muazzam, was the eldest son of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. After the usual war of succession, Bahadur Shah survived and ascended the throne. He assumed the title of Bahadur Shah, and reigned for less than five years.
Bahadur Shah faced numerous problems during his reign. The Mughal Empire was in shreds by the time Bahadur Shah had assumed control. He tried to keep peace with the Hindus, but the limitations of his realm, and the realities of the situation, made it almost impossible to rule. He had to face trouble in Rajputana as the Sikhs had risen under Guru Gobind Singh, their tenth and last guru. The Guru was however killed and his political heir, Banda Bahadur led a popular uprising against Bahadur Shah. This uprising led to the loss of Punjab, leaving Banda Bahadur as the virtual ruler of Sikhs in Punjab.
Bahadur Shah was mild and generous, but a weak ruler. Thus it was beyond his ability to hold the empire together. After a brief reign of less than five years, Bahadur Shah died in February 1712 at Lahore, while engaged in the task of improving and making alterations to the Shalimar Gardens. He was later buried at Delhi. He left behind four sons, three of whom were killed in the bloody war of succession, with the sole survivor, Jahandar Shah, who ascended the throne.
JAHANDAR SHAH [1664-1713]
The death of Bahadur Shah I in 1712 led to a war of succession among his four sons. It was Jahandar Shah who was ultimately successful with the help of Zulfiqar Khan. Jahandar Shah ascended the throne on March 29, 1712, with Zulfiqar Khan as the all-powerful minister.
Jahandar Shah was frivolous, reckless, and pleasure loving. He was devoted to lady Lal Kanwar who came from the family of musicians. When Jahandar Shah ascended the throne after defeating his brothers, he raised Lal Kanwar to the status of a queen. She was made empress and given the title of Imtiyaz Mughal. The emperor, fond of luxury and pleasure, spent much of his time in the company of Lal Kanwar who exercised considerable influence over him. She even accompanied him in the battlefield. Her family was appointed to mansabs and given jagirs. As a result of Jahandar Shah's neglect, the entire administration fell in hands of the relations of Lal Kanwar who robbed and mismanaged the state. The practice of royal favorites interfering in the affairs of the state became common under the rule of Jahandar Shah.
Jahandar Shah faced trouble from Muhammad Farrukhsiyar, grandson of Bahadur Shah, and the second son of Azim-ush-Shan. Farrukhsiyar, after the death of his father, proclaimed himself as the emperor. With the help of the Saiyid brothers, he was able to defeat Jahandar Shah in the battlefield of Samugarh, on January 6, 1713. Jahandar Shah and Lal Kanwar escaped and went back to Delhi and sought help of Zulfiqar Khan. Instead of helping Jahandar Shah, Zulfiqar Khan imprisoned him in order to gain favor of the new emperor. Jahandar Shah was murdered in prison on February 11, 1713, and was buried in the vault of Humayun's tomb at the side of other members of the family.
MUHAMMAD FARRUKHSIYAR [1683-1719]
Muhammad Farrukhsiyar was the grandson of Bahadur Shah I, and the son of Azim-ush-Shan. Farrukhsiyar succeeded the throne on June 11, 1713, at the age of 30 with the aid of the two Saiyid brothers. He was extremely handsome but utterly weak ruler who was swayed by his advisors. He lacked the ability and character to rule independently. With his reign began the ascendancy of the Saiyid brothers who monopolized all power of the state and reduced the Emperor to a figurehead. Saiyid Huseyn Ali became Wazir or Prime Minister while the other brother, Abdullah, became Commander-in-Chief of the army. Because of their influence, they came to be known as kingmakers.
Farrukhsiyar felt the supremacy of the Saiyid brothers as irksome and never ceased to plot against their overthrow. However, no plot could be ever executed, but the imperial internal strife had a very ill effect on administration of the empire. Taking advantage of the situation, the Rajputs, the Jats, and the Sikhs started creating panic. Farrukhsiyar was successful in his campaign against the Sikhs and executed Banda Bahadur in 1716, and recovered Lohagar from the Sikhs. It was during Farrukhsiyar's reign in 1717 that the East India Company bought duty-free trading rights in Bengal for a mere 3,000 rupees. This favor aided the British in later years to establish a firm foothold in India.
The constant plotting eventually led the Saiyid brothers to depose the Emperor. Farrukhsiyar was imprisoned, starved, blinded and finally strangled to death in 1719.The Saiyid brothers, even after deposing Farrukhsiyar, continued to play the role of kingmakers and placed on the throne Rafi-ul-Darajat who lived as a captive of the Saiyid brothers. He was later disposed and replaced by his elder brother, Rafi-ud-Daula. After the death of Rafi-ud-Daula, Saiyid brothers appointed Muhammad Shah, the grandson of Bahadur Shah I, as the next emperor.
MUHAMMAD SHAH [1702-1748]
Muhammad Shah was raised to the throne by the Saiyid brothers at an age of 17. He remained on the throne for 30 years. He was an idle and pleasure loving person and the Saiyid brothers continued to rule through this imperial puppet for a few years. Although Muhammad Shah was put on the throne by the Saiyid brothers, he tried to get rid of them. Muhammad Shah, with the help of the Mughal nobles who were disgusted by the supremacy of the Saiyid brothers, was finally able to remove the two in 1722. The nobles, headed by Chin Kilich Khan, or Nizam-ul-Mulk, with the support of the emperor, twice defeated the army of the Saiyid brothers. Huseyn Ali tried to crush the revolt but was assassinated with the aid and participation of the emperor. His brother Abdullah sought to retain his power by setting up another puppet emperor but was defeated and taken prisoner. Thus ended the power of the Saiyid brothers.
The Mughal Empire had begun to break up during the reign of Muhammad Shah. After the disposal of the Saiyid brothers, Muhammad Shah didn't bother to strengthen the empire but remained busy in seeking pleasures and remained inactive towards the affairs of the state. Muhammad Shah's reign was long but his lack of interest in the affairs of the state had lethal consequences. Provinces after provinces became independent. In Deccan, Chin Kilich Khan, better known by his titles of Asaf Jah and Nizam-ul-Mulk, established an independent kingdom with Hyderabad as his capital, in 1724. About the same time Sa'adat Khan, the governor of Oudh, and Alivardi Khan, the governor of Bengal, also set up their respective independent kingdoms. Thus the process of disintegration, which had begun after Bahadur Shah's death, was practically complete by the end of Muhammad Shah's reign.
It was during Muhammad Shah's reign that Nadir Shah attacked Delhi in 1739 and defeated the imperial army at Karnal, near Lahore. Nadir Shah entered Delhi without opposition on March 20, 1739, and plundered the treasures of the Mughal Empire till they were exhausted. He took away money, jewels, diamonds and gold worth about 700 million rupees, including the famous peacock throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond. By a treaty with Muhammad Shah, he also obtained rights of all the provinces to the west of Indus. The success of Nadir Shah revealed the internal weakness of the Mughal Empire and thoroughly destroyed its prestige. Muhammad Shah's reign also faced invasion from Ahmad Shah Abdali, who had succeeded Nadir Shah's eastern territories after his death. Ahmad Shah Abdali was unsuccessful and was forced to retreat. Muhammad Shah, however, did not live long after the victory and died on April 26, 1748.
AHMAD SHAH [1725-1775]
After the death of Muhammad Shah, his son Ahmad Shah ascended the throne on April 29, 1748. At the time of his accession, he was 23 years old and had no experience in the field of administration. Although Ahmad Shah was the hero of the battle of Sarhind, in which Ahmad Shah Abdali was defeated, he lacked qualities of leadership and was unable to manage the affairs of the state. As a result the administration fell into the hands of his Wazir, Safdar Jang. Safdar Jang was also unable to run the administration proficiently and spent most of his time in internal strife and self-aggrandizement. Safdar Jang later joined the Marhattas against Ahmad Shah in 1750.
Ahmad Shah's short reign was a period of great disturbance. The Rohillas rose in rebellion and Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Punjab for the second time and marched towards Delhi. In order to avoid the destruction of Delhi, Ahmad Shah made peace with Ahmad Shah Abdali by ceding Punjab and Multan.
Considering Ahmad Shah unfit to rule, Imad-ul-Mulk Ghazi-ud-Din, the grand son of Asaf Jah, assumed the office of Wazir. In 1754, Ahmad Shah was captured, blinded and imprisoned with the help of Marhattas, and the second son of Jahandar Shah, Aziz-ud-din Alamgir was put on the throne. Ahmad Shah died under confinement on January 1, 1775, at Delhi.
ALAMGIR II [1699-1759]
Aziz-ud-Din, the second son of Jahandar Shah, was raised to the throne by Ghazi-ud-Din after he deposed Ahmad Shah in 1754. On ascending the throne, he took the title of Alamgir and tried to follow the approach of Aurangzeb Alamgir. At the time of his accession to throne he was an old man of 55 years. He had no experience of administration and warfare as he had spent most of his life in jail. He was a weak ruler, with all powers vested in the hand of his Wazir, Ghazi-ud-Din Imad-ul-Mulk.
In 1756, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India once again and captured Delhi and plundered Mathura. Marhattas became more powerful because of their collaboration with Ghazi-ud-Din, and dominated the whole of northern India. This was the peak of Marhatta expansion, which caused great trouble for the Mughal Empire, already weak with no strong ruler.
The relations between Alamgir and his Wazir, Ghazi-ud-Din, by this time had gotten worse. Alamgir was murdered by Ghazi-ud-Din, and the son of Alamgir, Ali Gauhar succeeded him.
SHAH ALAM II [1728-1806]
After the murder of Alamgir II, his son Ali Gauhar succeeded him by taking the title of Shah Alam. Emperor Shah Alam was an ornamental figurehead with the reigns of government actually under the control of his Wazir, Ghazi-ud-Din.
Ghazi-ud-Din by his deceitful dealings had created around him a host of enemies, and in order to defeat them he sided with the Marhattas. During the reign of Alamgir II in 1758, the Marhattas had occupied Lahore and deposed Timur Shah who had been appointed a year earlier as viceroy by his father, Ahmad Shah Abdali. In August 1759, the Afghan monarch Ahmad Shah Abdali entered India. It took him almost two years to deal a fatal blow to Marhattas in the third battle of Panipat, fought on June 14, 1761. Consequently, the power of the Marhattas was crushed and their imperialistic dream of setting up a Marhatta Empire was shattered once and for all.
After the battle of Panipat, Ahmed Shah Abdali left the throne of Delhi to Shah Alam with Najib-ud-Daula as his Wazir. From 1761 to 1771, the capital was without a king. Shah Alam, after his unsuccessful effort to defeat the British in the Battle of Buxar in 1764, was taken in as the prisoner and did not return to Delhi till 1772. By giving the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa to the East India Company, Shah Alam further strengthened British control over the Indian Sub-continent. After the death of Najib-ud-Daula, Shah Alam remained a puppet in the hands of the ministers and the Marhattas. He appointed Sindhia, a Marhatta leader, as in-charge of the administration of Delhi.
In an expedition against Dabitah Khan, who was earlier appointed as Mir Bakhshi by Shah Alam, the entire family of Dabitah Khan and other Rohilla leaders were arrested and severely humiliated. Among them was Dabitah's son, Ghulam Qadir Rohilla, who was castrated and made to serve as a page in the palace. In September 1787, Ghulam Qadir Rohilla forced the emperor to appoint him as Mir Bakhshi and Regent. He then had to leave Delhi due to differences with the emperor, but the next year he entered Delhi to take revenge. He blinded Shah Alam with great cruelty and subjected the inmates of the palace, princes and princesses to severely hardship and humiliation. Sindhia, however, hunted him down and the blinded Shah Alam was restored as the king.
Sindhia continued to be the overlord of Delhi till he was defeated by Lord Lake in 1803. The British, whose control over India was almost complete, didn't disturb Shah Alam who was a king only in name, and continued to rule till his death in 1806.
HAIDER ALI [1722-1782]
Haider Ali was born in 1722 and was the son of Fateh Mohammad, a Punjabi adventurer, who traced his lineage to the family of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). Haider Ali rose from poverty and came to notice of the ruler of Mysore as a brave soldier. In 1755, he became the Faujdar, or the Military Commander, and Jagirdar of Budikot in Mysore.
Though uneducated, Haider Ali displayed robust common sense, courage and determination, taking full advantage of every opportunity that came his way. Haider Ali copied the army organization and equipment of the English and the French. Charge of the whole army was entrusted to him in 1757 when the Marhattas attacked Mysore and the internal position of the state was in chaos. He rose to the occasion and forced the Marhattas to withdraw. The Maharaja gave him the title of Fateh Bahadur. In 1761, he rose to the position of Chief Minister of Mysore and continued to strengthen his power. By 1766, the Hindu ruler of Mysore was the head merely in name, while Haider Ali assumed unquestioned control. When the Raja died in 1766, Haider Ali became the actual ruler.
Haider Ali discharged his responsibilities with great ability and not only overcame the chaos within the state, but also took advantage of the prevailing anarchy in the south, adding fresh territory to Mysore and greatly extending its area. The Marhattas and the Nizam of Hyderabad, who continued to cause trouble for him, viewed the rise of Mysore with anxiety. His entire reign was almost taken up with military campaigns against the Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Karnatic and the Marhattas who claimed Mysore to be part of their dominion. Both the Marhattas and the Nizam of Hyderabad on numerous occasions sided with the British in joint attacks on Mysore. In 1767, the British, in alliance with Hyderabad and the Marhattas, took the field against Haider Ali. In the first Mysore War, after some initial reverses, Haider Ali was able to defeat the British. Haider Ali took his army to the outskirts of Madras and dictated peace to the British. According to the peace treaty between Haider Ali and the British, it was arranged that mutual assistance would be provided in case of attack on either side.
However, the British refused to help Haider Ali when the Marhattas attacked Mysore in 1771. Angered by the British refusal to honor a defensive alliance and finding more support from the French in terms of his military demands, he sided with the French. So in 1780, when the English wanted to attack the French at Mahe situated on the west coast of Mysore, Haider Ali did not permit it. In return the English declared war against Haider Ali by forming an alliance with the Nizam and the Marhattas, and thus stared the Second Mysore War.
Haider Ali fought bravely and skillfully with 80,000 men and 100 guns attacking Karnatic. In October 1780 he captured Arcot. Haider Ali boldly continued the war with the British. But in 1781, he was defeated near Madras by Eyre Coote. Haider died a year later in the midst of a campaign but his son, Tipu Sultan, continued the campaign and secured victory over the British in 1783. Like Haider Ali, Tipu also proved to be one of the most formidable rivals the British ever encountered in India.
Haider Ali was a born soldier .He suffered repeated reverses yet he never despaired. Haider Ali never raised a cloud of enemies against himself. It was due to his diplomatic skills that Haider Ali's enemies never combined against him; he would not fight the British unless he was on good terms with the Marhattas, and he would not go to war with the Marhattas unless he was confident that the British would not join them. Haider Ali was a man of caliber who fought and was killed not submitting to a foreign power. Apart from being a strong willed soldier and ruler, he was also a successful administrator. He was tolerant to other faiths. He carried on numerous public works and construction of a number of roads, gardens and fortification in Bangalore and Seringapatam are credited to his reign.
HAJI SHARIATULLAH [1781-1840]
Haji Shariatullah was born in Banderlakola, Faridpur district, in 1781. He was the son of an ordinary farmer. After getting his early education from his village, he went to Arabia to perform Hajj at an early age of 18 years. He stayed there from 1799 to 1818 and got his religious education. He learnt Arabic and Persian from his teacher, Maulana Basharat. During his stay in Arabia he came into close contact with Wahabism started by Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab. On his return to Bengal he sought to purify Islam that was impaired by the Hindu influence.
Haji Shariatullah awakened the Muslims of Bengal by initiating the Faraizi Movement. He started his movement among the most depressed section of the Muslim society; the farmers and the artisans. He called upon the people to discard un-Islamic practices and customs, and to act upon the commandments of faith, the "Faraiz", or duties. He requested them to observe strictly the principles of faith and rules of Shariah, and to refrain from Hindu practices. This movement was mainly religious and social in character. The growing popularity of the movement amongst the people of Bengal alarmed the Hindu landlords who harassed Haji Shariatullah.
After the death of Haji Shariatullah in 1840, his son, Muhammad Mohsin, popularly known as Dadhu Mian, organized the movement and carried on the work of his father. He also visited Arabia at an early age but was more politically active than his father.
AKBAR II [1760-1837]
Shah Alam died in 1806 and was succeeded by his son, Akbar. He was king only in name and was the head of the royal establishment in the Red Fort of Delhi. The British by this time had consolidated their powers and had established a strong foothold in India. The Mughal king was treated as a pensioner of the East India Company and had little authority. Akbar, however, did try to get some of the privileges, which the British had accorded at the time of British conquest of Delhi, by sending Ram Mohan Roy as his envoy to England. Ram Mohan Roy submitted a draft memorial on the behalf of Akbar, but nothing came out of the mission as he died soon afterwards. Akbar died in 1837 and was succeeded by his son, Bahadur Shah Zafar, who was destined to be the last Mughal emperor to rule India.
BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR [1775-1862]
The last Mughal king, Bahadur Shah, better known as Bahadur Shah Zafar, was born in 1775 at Delhi. He was the son of Akbar Shah from his Hindu wife Lalbai. Bahadur Shah, after the death of his father, was placed on the throne in 1837 when he was little over 60 years of age. He was last in the lineage of Mughal emperors who ruled over India for about 300 years. Bahadur Shah Zafar, like his predecessors, was a weak ruler who came to throne when the British domination over India was strengthening and the Mughal rule was nearing its end. The British had curtailed the power and privileges of the Mughal rulers to such an extent that by the time of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal rule was confined to the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah Zafar was obliged to live on British pension, while the reins of real power lay in the hands of the East India Company.
During the reign of Bahadur Shah Zafar, Urdu poetry flourished and reached its zenith. He himself was a prolific poet and an accomplished calligrapher. He had acquired his poetic taste from his grandfather and father who were also poets. He passed most of his time in the company of poets and writers and was the author of four diwans. Love and mysticism were his favorite subjects that found expression in his poetry. Most of his poetry is full of pain and sorrow owing to the distress and degradation he had to face at the hands of the British. He was a great patron of poetry and literary work and some of the most eminent and famous Urdu poets like Mirza Ghalib, Zauk, Momin and Daagh were of his time.
|
A plaque proclaiming the end of the Mughal Dynasty |
It was at the time of Bahadur Shah that the War of Independence in 1857 started. In Bahadur Shah Zafar the freedom fighters found the symbol of freedom and therefore nominated him as their Commander-in-Chief. In the initial stages, the freedom fighters were successful, but later on the strong and organized British forces defeated them. Bahadur Shah, who had been proclaimed as an emperor of whole of India, was overthrown. He was arrested from Humayun's tomb, in Delhi, where he was hiding with his three sons and a grandson. Captain Hodson killed his sons and grandson and their severed heads were brought before him. Bahadur Shah Zafar himself was tried for treachery. He was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon), Burma (now Myanmar), in 1858 where he lived his last five years and died in 1862 at the age of 87.
